Information Superhighway:

Tipper Gore:"When my husband Vice President Gore served in the House of Representatives, he coined the phrase "information superhighway" to describe how this exciting new medium would one day transport us all. Since then, we have seen the Internet and World Wide Web revolutionize the way people interact, learn, and communicate."

Photo of Tipper and Al Gore wedding: 20-th year BW (Before Web)

Gore has become the point man in the Clinton administration's effort to build a national information highway much as his father, former Senator Albert Gore, was a principal architect of the interstate highway system a generation or more earlier. Principal Figures in the Development of the Internet ... The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill

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24 Jun 1986: Albert Gore (D-TN) introduce S 2594 Supercomputer Network Study Act of 1986 21 March 1994: Gore's Buenos Aires Speech International Telecommunications Union: "By means of electricity, the world of matter has become a great nerve, vibrating thousands of miles in a breathless point of time ... The round globe is a vast ... brain, instinct with intelligence!" This was not the observation of a physicist--or a neurologist. Instead, these visionary words were written in 1851 by Nathaniel Hawthorne, one of my country's greatest writers, who was inspired by the development of the telegraph. Much as Jules Verne foresaw submarines and moon landings, Hawthorne foresaw what we are now poised to bring into being... ... I opened by quoting Nathaniel Hawthorne, inspired by Samuel Morse's invention of the telegraph. Morse was also a famous portrait artist in the U.S.--his portrait of President James Monroe hangs today in the White House. While Morse was working on a portrait of General Lafayette in Washington, his wife, who lived about 500 kilometers away, grew ill and died. But it took seven days for the news to reach him. In his grief and remorse, he began to wonder if it were possible to erase barriers of time and space, so that no one would be unable to reach a loved one in time of need. Pursuing this thought, he came to discover how to use electricity to convey messages, and so he invented the telegraph and, indirectly, the ITU."

Interstate Highway System

In 1957, while responding to the threat of the Soviets in general and the success of Sputnik in particular, President Dwight Eisenhower created both the Interstate Highway System and the Advanced Research Projects Agency, or ARPA.

1972: First public demonstration of ARPANET

In late 1971, Larry Roberts at DARPA decided that people needed serious motivation to get things going. In October 1972 there was to be an International Conference on Computer Communications, so Larry asked Bob Kahn at BBN to organize a public demonstration of the ARPANET.

It took Bob about a year to get everybody far enough along to demonstrate a bunch of applications on the ARPANET. The idea was that we would install a packet switch and a Terminal Interface Processor or TIP in the basement of the Washington Hilton Hotel, and actually let the public come in and use the ARPANET, running applications all over the U.S ....

The demo was a roaring success, much to the surprise of the people at AT&T who were skeptical about whether it would work.

Around about 1973 - 1975 I maintained PDP 10 hardware at SRI.

I remember hearing that there was an ARPANET "conference" on the Star Trek game every Friday night. Star Trek was a text based game where you used photon torpedos and phasers to blast Klingons.

I used to have a pretty cool logical map of the ARPANET at the time but my ex-wife got it. (She got everything but the debts.)

1969: The first LOGs: UCLA -- Stanford

Around Labor Day in 1969, BBN delivered an Interface Message Processor (IMP) to UCLA that was based on a Honeywell DDP 516, and when they turned it on, it just started running. It was hooked by 50 Kbps circuits to two other sites (SRI and UCSB) in the four-node network: UCLA, Stanford Research Institute (SRI), UC Santa Barbara (UCSB), and the University of Utah in Salt Lake City.
The plan was unprecedented: Kleinrock, a pioneering computer science professor at UCLA, and his small group of graduate students hoped to log onto the Stanford computer and try to send it some data.They would start by typing "login," and seeing if the letters appeared on the far-off monitor

1957: Sputnik has launched ARPA

1957 - October 4th - the USSR launches Sputnik, the first artificial earth satellite.

1958 - February 7th - In response to the launch of Sputnik, the US Department of Defense issues directive 5105.15 establishing the Advanced Research Projects Agency (ARPA).

The organization united some of America's most brilliant people, who developed the United States' first successful satellite in 18 months. Several years later ARPA began to focus on computer networking and communications technology.

In 1962, Dr. J.C.R. Licklider was chosen to head ARPA's research in improving the military's use of computer technology. Licklider was a visionary who sought to make the government's use of computers more interactive. To quickly expand technology, Licklider saw the need to move ARPA's contracts from the private sector to universities and laid the foundations for what would become the ARPANET.

The Atlantic cable of 1858 and Sputnik of 1957 were two basic milestone of the Internet prehistory. You might want also to take a look on the Telecommunications and Computers preHistory

The Internet as a tool to create "critical mass" of intellectual resources

To appreciate the import ante the new computer-aided communication can have, one must consider the dynamics of "critical mass," as it applies to cooperation in creative endeavor. Take any problem worthy of the name, and you find only a few people who can contribute effectively to its solution. Those people must be brought into close intellectual partnership so that their ideas can come into contact with one another. But bring these people together physically in one place to form a team, and you have trouble, for the most creative people are often not the best team players, and there are not enough top positions in a single organization to keep them all happy. Let them go their separate ways, and each creates his own empire, large or small, and devotes more time to the role of emperor than to the role of problem solver. The principals still get together at meetings. They still visit one another. But the time scale of their communication stretches out, and the correlations among mental models degenerate between meetings so that it may take a year to do a week’s communicating. There has to be some way of facilitating communicantion among people wit bout bringing them together in one place.

Roads and Crossroads of Internet History

Information Age Milestones
1866:" In the beginning was the Cable..."

The Atlantic cable of 1858 was established to carry instantaneous communications across the ocean for the first time. Although the laying of this first cable was seen as a landmark event in society, it was a technical failure. It only remained in service a few days.
Subsequent cables laid in 1866 were completely successful and compare to events like the moon landing of a century later... the cable ... remained in use for almost 100 years. Smithsonian's National Museum of American History

A brief look from 1997:
Annual percentage growth rate of data traffic on undersea telephone cables: 90

Number of miles of undersea telephone cables: 186,000

Mobile phones and the Internet

The first mobile phone to have Internet connectivity was the Nokia 9000 Communicator, launched in Finland in 1996. The concept of a mobile phone based Internet did not take off until prices came down from that model and the network providers started to develop systems and services to enable the Internet on phones. NTT DoCoMo in Japan launched the first mobile Internet service, i-Mode in 1999 and this is considered the birth of the mobile phone based Internet. In 2001 the mobile phone based email system by Blackberry and its iconic phones were launched in America.

To make better use of the small screen and tiny keypad and one-handed operation typical of mobile phones, a simpler programming environment was created for the mobile phone Internet, called WAP for Wireless Application protocol. Most mobile phone Internet services operate on WAP.

The growth of the mobile phone based internet was initially a primarily Asian phenomenon with Japan, South Korea and Taiwan all soon finding the majority of their Internet users accessing by phone rather than by PC. Developing World countries followed next, with India, South Africa, Kenya, Philippines and Pakistan all reporting that the majority of their domestic Internet users accessed on a mobile phone rather than on a PC.

The European and North American use of the Internet was influenced by a large installed base of personal computers, and the growth of mobile phone Internet use was more gradual, but had reached national penetration levels of 20%-30% in most Western countries. In 2008 the cross-over happened, when more Internet access devices were mobile phones than personal computers. In many parts of the developing world, the ratio is as much as 10 mobile phone users to one PC user on the Internet

CERN, the European Internet, the link to the Pacific and beyond

Between 1984 and 1988 CERN began installation and operation of TCP/IP to interconnect its major internal computer systems, workstations, PCs and an accelerator control system. CERN continued to operate a limited self-developed system CERNET internally and several incompatible (typically proprietary) network protocols externally. There was considerable resistance in Europe towards more widespread use of TCP/IP and the CERN TCP/IP intranets remained isolated from the Internet until 1989.

In 1988 Daniel Karrenberg, from CWI in Amsterdam, visited Ben Segal, CERN's TCP/IP Coordinator, looking for advice about the transition of the European side of the UUCP Usenet network (much of which ran over X.25 links) over to TCP/IP. In 1987, Ben Segal had met with Len Bosack from the then still small company Cisco about purchasing some TCP/IP routers for CERN, and was able to give Karrenberg advice and forward him on to Cisco for the appropriate hardware. This expanded the European portion of the Internet across the existing UUCP networks, and in 1989 CERN opened its first external TCP/IP connections.[16] This coincided with the creation of Réseaux IP Européens (RIPE), initially a group of IP network administrators who met regularly to carry out co-ordination work together. Later, in 1992, RIPE was formally registered as a cooperative in Amsterdam.

At the same time as the rise of internetworking in Europe, ad hoc networking to ARPA and in-between Australian universities formed, based on various technologies such as X.25 and UUCPNet. These were limited in their connection to the global networks, due to the cost of making individual international UUCP dial-up or X.25 connections. In 1989, Australian universities joined the push towards using IP protocols to unify their networking infrastructures. AARNet was formed in 1989 by the Australian Vice-Chancellors' Committee and provided a dedicated IP based network for Australia.

The Internet began to penetrate Asia in the late 1980s. Japan, which had built the UUCP-based network JUNET in 1984, connected to NSFNet in 1989. It hosted the annual meeting of the Internet Society, INET'92, in Kobe. Singapore developed TECHNET in 1990, and Thailand gained a global Internet connection between Chulalongkorn University and UUNET in 1992

TCP/IP becomes worldwide

The first ARPANET connection outside the US was established to NORSAR in Norway in 1973, just ahead of the connection to Great Britain. These links were all converted to TCP/IP in 1982, at the same time as the rest of the ARPANET.

Merging the networks and creating the Internet

TCP/IP

 
Map of the TCP/IP test network in January 1982
 
Commemorative plaque listing some of the early Internet pioneers

With so many different network methods, something was needed to unify them. Robert E. Kahn of DARPA and ARPANET recruited Vinton Cerf of Stanford University to work with him on the problem. By 1973, they had soon worked out a fundamental reformulation, where the differences between network protocols were hidden by using a common internetwork protocol, and instead of the network being responsible for reliability, as in the ARPANET, the hosts became responsible. Cerf credits Hubert Zimmerman, Gerard LeLann and Louis Pouzin (designer of the CYCLADES network) with important work on this design.[9]

The specification of the resulting protocol, RFC 675 - Specification of Internet Transmission Control Program, by Vinton Cerf, Yogen Dalal and Carl Sunshine, Network Working Group, December, 1974, contains the first attested use of the term internet, as a shorthand for internetworking; later RFCs repeat this use, so the word started out as an adjective rather than the noun it is today.

With the role of the network reduced to the bare minimum, it became possible to join almost any networks together, no matter what their characteristics were, thereby solving Kahn's initial problem. DARPA agreed to fund development of prototype software, and after several years of work, the first somewhat crude demonstration of a gateway between the Packet Radio network in the SF Bay area and the ARPANET was conducted. On November 22, 1977[10] a three network demonstration was conducted including the ARPANET, the Packet Radio Network and the Atlantic Packet Satellite network—all sponsored by DARPA. Stemming from the first specifications of TCP in 1974, TCP/IP emerged in mid-late 1978 in nearly final form. By 1981, the associated standards were published as RFCs 791, 792 and 793 and adopted for use. DARPA sponsored or encouraged the development of TCP/IP implementations for many operating systems and then scheduled a migration of all hosts on all of its packet networks to TCP/IP. On January 1, 1983, TCP/IP protocols became the only approved protocol on the ARPANET, replacing the earlier NCP protocol.[11]


ARPANET to Several Federal Wide Area Networks: MILNET, NSI, and NSFNet
Main articles: ARPANET and NSFNet

After the ARPANET had been up and running for several years, ARPA looked for another agency to hand off the network to; ARPA's primary mission was funding cutting edge research and development, not running a communications utility. Eventually, in July 1975, the network had been turned over to the Defense Communications Agency, also part of the Department of Defense. In 1983, the U.S. military portion of the ARPANET was broken off as a separate network, the MILNET. MILNET subsequently became the unclassified but military-only NIPRNET, in parallel with the SECRET-level SIPRNET and JWICS for TOP SECRET and above. NIPRNET does have controlled security gateways to the public Internet.

The networks based around the ARPANET were government funded and therefore restricted to noncommercial uses such as research; unrelated commercial use was strictly forbidden. This initially restricted connections to military sites and universities. During the 1980s, the connections expanded to more educational institutions, and even to a growing number of companies such as Digital Equipment Corporation and Hewlett-Packard, which were participating in research projects or providing services to those who were.

Several other branches of the U.S. government, the National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), the National Science Foundation (NSF), and the Department of Energy (DOE) became heavily involved in Internet research and started development of a successor to ARPANET. In the mid 1980s, all three of these branches developed the first Wide Area Networks based on TCP/IP. NASA developed the NASA Science Network, NSF developed CSNET and DOE evolved the Energy Sciences Network or ESNet.

More explicitly, NASA developed a TCP/IP based Wide Area Network, NASA Science Network (NSN), in the mid 1980s connecting space scientists to data and information stored anywhere in the world. In 1989, the DECnet-based Space Physics Analysis Network (SPAN) and the TCP/IP-based NASA Science Network (NSN) were brought together at NASA Ames Research Center creating the first multiprotocol wide area network called the NASA Science Internet, or NSI. NSI was established to provide a total integrated communications infrastructure to the NASA scientific community for the advancement of earth, space and life sciences. As a high-speed, multiprotocol, international network, NSI provided connectivity to over 20,000 scientists across all seven continents.

In 1984 NSF developed CSNET exclusively based on TCP/IP. CSNET connected with ARPANET using TCP/IP, and ran TCP/IP over X.25, but it also supported departments without sophisticated network connections, using automated dial-up mail exchange. This grew into the NSFNet backbone, established in 1986, and intended to connect and provide access to a number of supercomputing centers established by the NSF.[12]


Transition towards an Internet

The term "Internet" was adopted in the first RFC published on the TCP protocol (RFC 675[13]: Internet Transmission Control Program, December 1974). It was around the time when ARPANET was interlinked with NSFNet, that the term Internet came into more general use,[14] with "an internet" meaning any network using TCP/IP. "The Internet" came to mean a global and large network using TCP/IP. Previously "internet" and "internetwork" had been used interchangeably, and "internet protocol" had been used to refer to other networking systems such as Xerox Network Services.[15]

As interest in wide spread networking grew and new applications for it arrived, the Internet's technologies spread throughout the rest of the world. TCP/IP's network-agnostic approach meant that it was easy to use any existing network infrastructure, such as the IPSS X.25 network, to carry Internet traffic. In 1984, University College London replaced its transatlantic satellite links with TCP/IP over IPSS.

Many sites unable to link directly to the Internet started to create simple gateways to allow transfer of e-mail, at that time the most important application. Sites which only had intermittent connections used UUCP or FidoNet and relied on the gateways between these networks and the Internet. Some gateway services went beyond simple e-mail peering, such as allowing access to FTP sites via UUCP or e-mail.

Finally, the Internet was decentralized. BGP was created to replace the EGP routing protocol to allow fully decentralized routing in order to allow the removal of the NSFNet Internet backbone network. This allowed the Internet to become a truly decentralized system. Since 1994, version four of the protocol has been in use on the Internet. All previous versions are now obsolete. The major enhancement in version 4 was support of Classless Inter-Domain Routing and use of route aggregation to decrease the size of routing tables. Since January 2006, version 4 is codified in RFC 4271, which went through well over 20 drafts based on the earlier RFC 1771 version 4. The RFC 4271 version corrected a number of errors, clarified ambiguities, and also brought the RFC much closer to industry practices

Networks that led to the Internet

ARPANET
Main article: ARPANET
 

Promoted to the head of the information processing office at DARPA, Robert Taylor intended to realize Licklider's ideas of an interconnected networking system. Bringing in Larry Roberts from MIT, he initiated a project to build such a network. The first ARPANET link was established between the University of California, Los Angeles and the Stanford Research Institute on 22:30 hours on October 29, 1969. By December 5, 1969, a 4-node network was connected by adding the University of Utah and the University of California, Santa Barbara. Building on ideas developed in ALOHAnet, the ARPANET grew rapidly. By 1981, the number of hosts had grown to 213, with a new host being added approximately every twenty days.

ARPANET became the technical core of what would become the Internet, and a primary tool in developing the technologies used. ARPANET development was centered around the Request for Comments (RFC) process, still used today for proposing and distributing Internet Protocols and Systems. RFC 1, entitled "Host Software", was written by Steve Crocker from the University of California, Los Angeles, and published on April 7, 1969. These early years were documented in the 1972 film Computer Networks: The Heralds of Resource Sharing.

International collaborations on ARPANET were sparse. For various political reasons, European developers were concerned with developing the X.25 networks. Notable exceptions were the Norwegian Seismic Array (NORSAR) in 1972, followed in 1973 by Sweden with satellite links to the Tanum Earth Station and University College London.

X.25 and public access


Following on from ARPA's research, packet switching network standards were developed by the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) in the form of X.25 and related standards. In 1974, X.25 formed the basis for the SERCnet network between British academic and research sites, which later became JANET. The initial ITU Standard on X.25 was approved in March 1976. This standard was based on the concept of virtual circuits.

The British Post Office, Western Union International and Tymnet collaborated to create the first international packet switched network, referred to as the International Packet Switched Service (IPSS), in 1978. This network grew from Europe and the US to cover Canada, Hong Kong and Australia by 1981. By the 1990s it provided a worldwide networking infrastructure.

Unlike ARPAnet, X.25 was also commonly available for business use. Telenet offered its Telemail electronic mail service, but this was oriented to enterprise use rather than the general email of ARPANET.

The first dial-in public networks used asynchronous TTY terminal protocols to reach a concentrator operated by the public network. Some public networks, such as CompuServe used X.25 to multiplex the terminal sessions into their packet-switched backbones, while others, such as Tymnet, used proprietary protocols. In 1979, CompuServe became the first service to offer electronic mail capabilities and technical support to personal computer users. The company broke new ground again in 1980 as the first to offer real-time chat with its CB Simulator. There were also the America Online (AOL) and Prodigy dial in networks and many bulletin board system (BBS) networks such as FidoNet. FidoNet in particular was popular amongst hobbyist computer users, many of them hackers and amateur radio operators.


UUCP
Main articles: UUCP and Usenet

In 1979, two students at Duke University, Tom Truscott and Jim Ellis, came up with the idea of using simple Bourne shell scripts to transfer news and messages on a serial line with nearby University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Following public release of the software, the mesh of UUCP hosts forwarding on the Usenet news rapidly expanded. UUCPnet, as it would later be named, also created gateways and links between FidoNet and dial-up BBS hosts. UUCP networks spread quickly due to the lower costs involved, ability to use existing leased lines, X.25 links or even ARPANET connections, and the lack of strict use policies (commercial organizations who might provide bug fixes) compared to later networks like CSnet and Bitnet. All connects were local. By 1981 the number of UUCP hosts had grown to 550, nearly doubling to 940 in 1984. - Sublink Network, operating since 1987 and officially founded in Italy in 1989, based its interconnectivity upon UUCP to redistribute mail and news groups messages throughout its Italian nodes (about 100 at the time) owned both by private individuals and small companies. Sublink Network represented possibly one of the first examples of the internet technology becoming progress through popular diffusion

Packet switching

At the tip of the inter-networking problem lay the issue of connecting separate physical networks to form one logical network, with much wasted capacity inside the assorted separate networks. During the 1960s, Donald Davies (NPL), Paul Baran (RAND Corporation), and Leonard Kleinrock (MIT) developed and implemented packet switching. Early networks used for the command and control of nuclear forces were message switched, not packet-switched, although current strategic military networks are, indeed, packet-switching and connectionless. Baran's research had approached packet switching from studies of decentralisation to avoid combat damage compromising the entire network.[4]

Three terminals and an ARPA

A fundamental pioneer in the call for a global network, J.C.R. Licklider, articulated the ideas in his January 1960 paper, Man-Computer Symbiosis.

"A network of such [computers], connected to one another by wide-band communication lines [which provided] the functions of present-day libraries together with anticipated advances in information storage and retrieval and [other] symbiotic functions."
—J.C.R. Licklider, [2]

In October 1962, Licklider was appointed head of the United States Department of Defense's Advanced Research Projects Agency, now known as DARPA, within the information processing office. There he formed an informal group within DARPA to further computer research. As part of the information processing office's role, three network terminals had been installed: one for System Development Corporation in Santa Monica, one for Project Genie at the University of California, Berkeley and one for the Compatible Time-Sharing System project at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Licklider's identified need for inter-networking would be made obvious by the apparent waste of resources this caused.

"For each of these three terminals, I had three different sets of user commands. So if I was talking online with someone at S.D.C. and I wanted to talk to someone I knew at Berkeley or M.I.T. about this, I had to get up from the S.D.C. terminal, go over and log into the other terminal and get in touch with them. [...] I said, it's obvious what to do (But I don't want to do it): If you have these three terminals, there ought to be one terminal that goes anywhere you want to go where you have interactive computing. That idea is the ARPAnet."

Before the Internet

In the 1950s and early 1960s, prior to the widespread inter-networking that led to the Internet, most communication networks were limited in that they only allowed communications between the stations on the network. Some networks had gateways or bridges between them, but these bridges were often limited or built specifically for a single use. One prevalent computer networking method was based on the central mainframe method, simply allowing its terminals to be connected via long leased lines. This method was used in the 1950s by Project RAND to support researchers such as Herbert Simon, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, when collaborating across the continent with researchers in Sullivan, Illinois, on automated theorem proving and artificial intelligence.The research led to the development of several packet-switched networking solutions in the late 1960s and 1970s,[1] including ARPANET and the X.25 protocols. Additionally, public access and hobbyist networking systems grew in popularity, including unix-to-unix copy (UUCP) and FidoNet. They were however still disjointed separate networks, served only by limited gateways between networks. This led to the application of packet switching to develop a protocol for inter-networking, where multiple different networks could be joined together into a super-framework of networks. By defining a simple common network system, the Internet protocol suite, the concept of the network could be separated from its physical implementation. This spread of inter-network began to form into the idea of a global inter-network that would be called 'The Internet', and this began to quickly spread as existing networks were converted to become compatible with this. This spread quickly across the advanced telecommunication networks of the western world, and then began to penetrate into the rest of the world as it became the de-facto international standard and global network. However, the disparity of growth led to a digital divide that is still a concern today.

INTERNET SECURITY

When a computer connects to a network and begins communicating with others, it is taking a risk. Internet security involves the protection of a computer's Internet account and files from intrusion of an unknown user.[1] Basic security measures involve protection by well selected passwords, change of file permissions and back up of computer's data.
Security concerns are in some ways peripheral to normal business working, but serve to highlight just how important it is that business users feel confident when using IT systems. Security will probably always be high on the IT agenda simply because cyber criminals know that a successful attack is very profitable. This means they will always strive to find new ways to circumvent IT security, and users will consequently need to be continually vigilant. Whenever decisions need to be made about how to enhance a system, security will need to be held uppermost among its requirements.

Internet security professionals should be fluent in the four major aspects:

Penetration testing
Intrusion Detection
Incidence Response
Legal / Audit Compliance

Anti-virus

Programs can be made to help your computer, but some users can also create programs with intentions of destroying the computers data by being deceptive. Such programs are known as Trojan horses, worms, viruses and spy ware.
Trojan horses are programs which pretend to do one thing, but in reality snoop out your personal data or damage it. These types conceal their identity or true intentions and are usually quite hard to detect.
Worms are programs which are able to replicate themselves over a computer network and in turn perform malicious actions. As a result it has the ability to affect other programs on the computer.
Viruses are programs which are able to log into the personal files on a computer it has affected and as a result, can end up removing all of them. It can have serious side effects on a computers system.
Mal ware can be classified as Trojans with a limited payload and are often not detected by most antivirus software. They may require the use of other software designed to detect other classes of malware, including spy ware.
Software programs such as antivirus software are the most useful in protecting your computer from harmful viruses. These programs are used to detect and eliminate viruses. Anti-virus software can be purchased from any software vendor or downloaded off the Internet. Care should be taken in the selection of anti-virus software, as some programs are not very effective in finding and eliminating viruses or malware. Also, when downloading anti-virus software from the Internet, one should be cautioned that some websites say they are providing protection from viruses with their software, but they are really trying to install malware on your computer by disguising it as something else.

Anti-spy ware

There are two major kinds of threats in relation to spy ware:
Spy ware collects and relays data from the compromised computer to a third-party.
Ad ware automatically plays, displays, or downloads advertisements. Some types of ad ware are also spy ware and can be classified as privacy-invasive software. Ad ware often are integrated with other software.

Email Security

An significant part of the Internet, E-mail encryption is an important subset of this topic.

Browser choice

Almost 70% of the browser market is occupied by Internet Explorer[1]. As a result, malware writers often exploit Internet Explorer. Often malware exploit ActiveX vulnerabilities. Internet Explorer market share is continuously dropping (as of 2009; see list of web browsers for statistics) as users switch to other browsers, most notably FireFox, Opera and Google Chrome.

Buffer overflow attacks

A buffer overflow is a attack that could be used by a hacker to get full system access through various methods. It is similar to "Brute Forcing" a computer in that it sends an immense attack to the victim computer until it cracks. Most Internet security solutions today lack sufficient protection against these types of attacks.

So to protect Ur PC from different types of viruses, there are several types of antiviruses available in the market, which provides quite secure enviornment on internet......

And for more information on internet security visit Internet Security Concepts.

Source ; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internet_security

Internet Security

Internet security flaws result in hundreds of millions of dollars of damage annually, including businesses, government agencies and individuals as victims. An increasingly sophisticated new breed of criminal mandates increasingly sophisticated Internet security measures. The following research discusses the general trends in Internet security and criminal activity. The introduction discusses the growing incidence of crimes committed via the Internet and computers, while underscoring the need for increased security measures. A variety of Internet security measures are then addressed including: access security, cryptography, encryption, firewalls, wireless systems, honey-pots and tracers, cookies and identity theft measures, and vulnerability assessment tools. As organizations become more aware of Internet security measures, many organizations are developing policies that protect them from individuals outside and inside the company. One of these is the establishment of computer use policies pertaining to employees. A conclusion addresses computer use policies and the most common elements of them.
The Internet represents a new market, a new market of currency, and a new way for businesses to conduct operations electronically. While new technologies often increase opportunities, they also spawn a new breed of criminal trying to undermine those opportunities. The ability to commit crime on the Internet extends across the eco
. . .ys every day due to the number of encryptions processed. Such issues as encryption pertain to many kinds of law, such as contract law, privacy law, and financial law. For example, the Electronic Signatures in Global and National Commerce Act 2000 (S.761) validates electronic signatures for interstate and international commerce, defines the circumstances under which an electronic record satisfies statutes and regulations, and other provisions. Various consumer protections are provided in the Act, such as consent being required before multiple transactions can be conducted with the signature and the provisions of a printed copy of any such transaction at the consumer’s request. Encryption Another common protection measure is the use of encryption. Encryption applications like Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) provide a level of security that access security measures cannot provide. There are two methods of encryption. One is known as symmetric key encryption and uses identical passwords to encrypt and decrypt data. The main flaw with this form of security is that it requires a secure channel to provide users with passwords. If there was a secure channel there would be no need to use encryption. Therefore, the second form was dev . . . Some common words found in the essay are:Pentagon Internet, Computer Policy, Commerce Committee, Abstract Internet, Firewalls Firewalls, Privacy PGP, STAT Scanner, Internet Intranets, Identity Theft, Introduction Internet, internet security, security measures, internet security measures, access security, vulnerability assessment tools, vulnerability assessment, assessment tools, increasingly sophisticated, identity theft, breed criminal, businesses government agencies, communications policy, intranet scanner, access security measures, outside inside company,
source;http://www.lotsofessays.com

Internet Banking: Risk and Security Issues

The United States Federal Deposit Insurance Commission (FDIC) (2005) pointed out that as the use of the Internet continues to expand, more banks and thrifts are using the Web to offer products and services and to enhance communication with consumers. U.S.-based Wells Fargo was a leader in the development of online banking services, beginning in 1990 and creating a trend that was adopted in the United Kingdom in 1997. Today, as noted by the FDIC (2005), Internet banking has become an established industry and there are some banks that provide online services only without traditional bricks and mortar establishments.
While the vast majority of analysts see Internet banking as having revolutionized the financial sector, Perumal (2005) suggests that despite the astronomical growth rate of this sector, there are certain risks attendant upon using the Internet for personal financ
. . .Some common words found in the essay are:Statement Purpose, United Kingdom, Nevertheless Cipparone, Limitations Despite, Methods Research, References Cipparone, Commission FDIC, Finally Internet, US-based Fargo, online banking, internet banking, Yahoo Google, 2005 internet, identity theft, 2005 internet banking, banking services, associated online banking, transaction speed, fdic 2005, proposed study, perumal 2005, fdic 2005 internet, federal deposit insurance, deposit insurance.
source; http://www.lotsofessays.com

Internet Banking

The United States Federal Deposit Insurance Commission (FDIC) (2005) pointed out that as the use of the Internet continues to expand, more banks and thrifts are using the Web to offer products and services and to enhance communication with consumers. U.S.-based Wells Fargo was a leader in the development of online banking services, beginning in 1990 and creating a trend that was adopted in the United Kingdom in 1997. Today, as noted by the FDIC (2005), Internet banking has become an established industry and there are some banks that provide online services only without traditional bricks and mortar establishments.
While the vast majority of analysts see Internet banking as having revolutionized the financial sector, Perumal (2005) suggests that despite the astronomical growth rate of this sector, there are certain risks attendant upon using the Internet for personal financial transactions. Among these risks are the potential for identity theft, concerns that Internet banking may be depersonalized, and fears that government and private sector actors may gain access to sensitive personal information (Stewart, 2005).
Nevertheless, as Cipparone (2005) has commented, Internet banking offers consumers any number of advantages. Ease of access, transaction speed, customization of services, and 24-hour-a-day availability are among these advantages. For bankers, the Internet offers an opportunity to reach out to a new generation of clients and to expand market p
. . .nking is prominent in a relatively small number of locales and the experiences in those locales may not necessarily reflect universal concerns. Finally, given that Internet banking requires access to a personal computer and an Internet connection, access to this service is not itself universal. This may result in information bias. Methods of Research The proposed report will consist of an exploratory, narrative, descriptive study employing secondary rather than primary research. A number of databases will be employed in identifying previously published materials suitable for inclusion in the study. The John F. Kennedy Memorial Library at California State University, Los Angeles, and online search engines such as Yahoo and Google will provide the bulk of the secondary research materials employed in the study. Results The research completed for this report reflected the interrelated nature of the three questions listed above in the statement of purpose. The risks and benefits of online banking are directly related to the degree of comfort that consumers feel about online banking and online banking has had an enormous impact on the banking industry. Elinor Mills (????), commenting on an online survey that was commiss . . . Some common words found in the essay are:Sovereign Bank, Statement Purpose, Los Angeles, United Kingdom, Nevertheless Cipparone, Summary Conclusion, Yahoo Google, Limitations Despite, Deena McCoy, Elinor Mills, online banking, identity theft, internet banking, banking services, banking industry, online banking services, 2005 internet, 2005 internet banking, banking banking, online bill, risks benefits, benefits online, online banking banking, banking banking industry, benefits online banking.
source; http://www.lotsofessays.com

Internet Use at Wells Fargo Bank

Wells Fargo Bank makes extensive use of the internet for internal and external communication and strategy. The company uses the Internet for advertising, for example, and has used pop-up advertisements on various Web sites to link visitors to the Wells Fargo site and brand. The company also has an extensive Web site for customers, potential customers and employees; this Web site also includes advertisements for the company's products and services. These products are being pitched to those who are already familiar with the company, which may make them even more receptive to the advertisements than pop-up ads that appear on third-party sites ("From Wall Street," 2005).
The Web site is used for dissemination of information both inside and outside the organization. External communication is emphasized on the site more than internal communication. At the site, customers·both corporate and individual·can access their accounts and receive information about their accounts via e-mail if they so choose. In addition, current customers can conduct business through the Internet and the Wells Fargo Web site to the point that companies can run their payroll on-site and customers can make payments to various loans or transfer money from one account to another online. The Web site can also be used for paying bills to third-parties; this reduces the level of complexity associated with bill paying and is perceived as a valuable customer benefit (Bodner
. . .for example, another menu is displayed listing various products and options, such as "Buy Now" and "Football" ("Nike," 2005). Under the "About Nike / Jobs" button, the user can locate information about the company·including investor relations and employment opportunities. This is also the location of the "Responsibility" section of the site. Nike has encountered several public relations difficulties, the most notable of which is its use of child labor in Asia. Not surprisingly, there is an entire section of the Web site devoted to "Workers and Factories" ("Responsibility," 2005). However, the "About Nike" of the Web site is organized differently than the entry page, and even has a different color scheme. Perhaps the site is being redone and the company chose to keep certain elements active during the reconstruction. Or the site may have had different developers working in isolation who were not aware of the standards used elsewhere on the site. Regardless of the reason, the site misses an opportunity to promote brand management since it is disjointed from the home page to the corporate information page. There is also confusion about the various features of the site. For example, Nike offers consumers the ability to cust . . . Some common words found in the essay are:Word Excel, Wall Street, Fargo Web, Nike Web, Fargo Bank, Niketown Web, Fargo Internet, Football Nike, FINANCIAL INSTITUTION, ANALYSIS NIKECOM, web site, wall street, 2005 nike, home page, wall street 2005, site nike, 7 nov, key customers, nov 2005, retrieved 7, retrieved 7 nov, 7 nov 2005, street 2005, internal communication site, nike 2005 nike

source;http://www.lotsofessays.com

Uses of Internet

The internet is computer based global information system. It is composed of many interconnected computer networks. Each network may link thousands of computers
enabling them to share information. The internet has brought a transformation in many aspects of life. It is one of the biggest contributors in making the world into a global village. Use of internet has grown tremendously since it was introduced. It is mostly because of its flexibility. Nowadays one can access the internet easily. Most people have computers in their homes but even the ones who don?t they can always go to cyber cafes where this service is provided.
The internet developed from software called the ARPANET which the U.S military had developed. It was only restrict to military personnel and the people who developed it. Only after it was privatized was it allowed to be used commercially.
The internet has developed to give many benefits to mankind. The access to information being one of the most important. Student can now have access to libraries around the world. Some charge a fee but most provide free services. Before students had to spend hours and hours in the libraries but now at the touch of a button students have a huge database in front of them
Online chatting also has its own hazards. When one is talking to strangers one does not really know who they are. They can be just anybody pretending to be someone else. Many cases have been reported of child abuse happening this way. There is no way of verifying who the other really is. Many industries have also suffered a loss, especially the music and movie industry. Movies and songs are available for free on the internet which has affected the sale levels of artists. People make their own cds and sell them. The phone industry has also suffered because more people are making calls through the internet.
There is also a certain loss of privacy because now most people store all their information on the computer and when you connect online, anybody can hack ones computer and get into it. This had already been done with many e-mail inboxes. Sites also have been hacked leading to major mishaps. Sending a virus on the Web has also been another way that people?s computers have been infected.
The internet has brought new opportunities to government, business and education. Governments use it for various processes such as distribution of information and internal communication. Businesses use it to sell and buy products online and also to interact with other businesses. New business opportunities have sprouted because of the internet. Auctions take place and sites like ?e-bay? provide the opportunity for everyone to put their things on auction. Companies use it for electronic comme
Some topics in this essay: , Wide Web, School Economics, online chatting, access internet, internet brought, internet developed, internet online, internet abused,
Join now to see the rest of the essay! Approximate Word count = 1010 Approximate Pages = 4 (250 words per page double spaced)

CDMA & GSM Cellular Technology

The protocols described here are from the GSM and the CDMA protocol families and most are common to both protocol families.
For more protocols related to cellular protocols see the following families: GPRS, UMTS, CDMA2000
See SS7 for a description of SS7 protocols.
For information on cellular and telecom protocol testing

GSM and CDMA protocols described here include:
BSMAP
Base Station Management Application Part
BSSAP
BSS Application Part
BSSLAP

BSSAPLE

BSSMAP
BSS Managment Application Part
BTSM
Base Transceiver Station Management
CC
Call Control
DTAP (CDMA)
Direct Transfer Application Part for CDMA
DTAP (GSM)
Direct Transfer Application Part for GSM
MM
Mobility Management
MMS

Mobile IP
Mobile Internet Protocol
RR
Radio Resource
SMS
Short Message Service
SMSTP
Short Message Transfer Layer Protocol

GSMIn 1989, GSM responsibility was transferred to the European Telecommunication Standards Institute (ETSI), and phase I of the GSM specifications were published in 1990. Commercial service was started in mid­1991, and by 1993 there were 36 GSM networks in 22 countries, with 25 additional countries having already selected or considering GSM In addition to Europe, South Africa, Australia, and many Middle and Far East countries have chosen to adopt GSM. By the beginning of 1994, there were 1.3 million subscribers worldwide. The acronym GSM now (aptly) stands for Global System for Mobile telecommunications.
From the beginning, the planners of GSM wanted ISDN compatibility in services offered and control signaling used. The radio link imposed some limitations, however, since the standard ISDN bit rate of 64 Kbps could not be practically achieved.
The digital nature of GSM allows data, both synchronous and asynchronous data, to be transported as a bearer service to or from an ISDN terminal. The data rates supported by GSM are 300 bps, 600 bps, 1200 bps, 2400 bps, and 9600 bps.
The most basic teleservice supported by GSM is telephony. A unique feature of GSM compared to older analog systems is the Short Message Service (SMS). Supplementary services are provided on top of teleservices or bearer services, and include features such as international roaming, caller identification, call forwarding, call waiting, multi­party conversations, and barring of outgoing (international) calls, among others.

CDMACode Division Multiple Access (CDMA) is a digital air interface standard, claiming eight to fifteen times the capacity of traditional analog cellular systems. It employs a commercial adaptation of a military spread-spectrum technology. Based on spread spectrum theory, it gives essentially the same services and qualities as wireline service. The primary difference is that access to the local exchange carrier (LEC) is provided via a wireless phone.
Though CDMA’s application in cellular telephony is relatively new, it is not a new technology. CDMA has been used in many military applications, such as:
Anti-jamming (because of the spread signal, it is difficult to jam or interfere with a CDMA signal).
Ranging (measuring the distance of the transmission to know when it will be received).
Secure communications (the spread spectrum signal is very hard to detect).
CDMA is a spread spectrum technology, which means that it spreads the information contained in a particular signal of interest over a much greater bandwidth than the original signal. With CDMA, unique digital codes, rather than separate RF frequencies or channels, are used to differentiate subscribers. The codes are shared by both the mobile station (cellular phone) and the base station, and are called pseudo-random code sequences. Since each user is separated by a unique code, all users can share the same frequency band (range of radio spectrum). This gives many unique advantages to the CDMA technique over other RF techniques in cellular communication.
CDMA is a digital multiple access technique and this cellular aspect of the protocol is specified by the Telecommunications Industry Association (TIA) as IS-95. In CDMA, the BSSAP is divided into the DTAP and BSMAP (which corresponds to BSSMAP in GSM).
BSMAP
TIA/EIA/IS-634-A, revision A
The Base Station Management Application Part (BSMAP) supports all Radio Resource Management and Facility Management procedures between the MSC and the BS, or to a cell(s) within the BS. BSMAP messages are not passed to the MS, but are used only to perform functions at the MSC or the BS. A BSMAP message (complete layer 3 information) is also used together with a DTAP message to establish a connection for an MS between the BS and the MSC, in response to the first layer 3 interface message sent by the MS to the BS for each MS system request.
The format of the header is shown in the following illustration:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Message type
1
Parameter
2-n
BSMAP header structure

Message TypeA one octet field defining the message type. This mandatory field uniquely defines the function and format of each BSSMAP message.
Information ElementEach IE has an identifier which is coded as a single octet. The length of an IE may be fixed or variable and may or may not include a length indicator.
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

BSSLAP
http://webapp.etsi.org/key/queryform.asp 3GPP TS 08.71
BSSLAP defines the SMLC-BSS layer 3 protocol .The following Location Services related messages are exchanged between the SMLC and the BSS, with the VMSC acting as a relay.
TA Request
TA Response
TOA Request
TOA Response
Reject
Reset
Abort
TA Layer3
MS Position Command
MS Position Response
On the A interface the messages are contained in the Location Information IE which is encapsulated in the BSSMAP-LE Connection Oriented Information message as specified in 3GPP TS 08.08. On the Ls interface the messages are contained in the Location Information IE which is encapsulated in the BSSMAP-LE Connection Oriented Information message as specified in 3GPP TS 09.31.
The protocol header appears as follows:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Message type
1
Information elements
2-n
Message TypeThe following messages types are available:
Reserved
00000000
TA EQUEST
00000001
TA Response
00000010
TOA Request
00000100
TOA Response
00000101
Reject
00001010
Reset
00001011
Abort
00001100
TA LAYER3
00001101
MS Position Command
00001111
MS Posiiton Response
00010000
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

BSSAP
GSM 08.06 http://www.etsi.fr
The MTP and the SCCP are used to support signalling messages between the Mobile Services Switching Center (MSC) and the Base Station System (BSS). One user function of the SCCP, called BSS Application Part (BSSAP) is defined. In the case of point-to-point calls the BSSAP uses one signalling connection per active mobile station having one or more active transactions for the transfer of layer 3 messages. In the case of a voice group or broadcast call there is always one connection per cell involved in the call and one additional connection per BSS for the transmission of layer 3 messages. There is an additional connection for the speaker in a broadcast call or the first speaker in a voice group call up to the point at which the network decides to transfer them to a common channel. Additional connections may also be required for any mobile stations in the voice group or broadcast call which the network decides to place on a dedicated connection. The BSSAP user function is further subdivided into two separate functions:
The Direct Transfer Application sub-Part (DTAP), also called GSM L3, is used to transfer messages between the MSC and the MS (Mobile Station); the layer-3 information in these messages is not interpreted by the BSS. The descriptions of the layer 3 protocols for the MS-MSC information exchange are contained in the 04- series of GSM Technical Specifications.
The BSS Management Application sub-Part (BSSMAP) supports other procedures between the MSC and the BSS related to the MS (resource management, handover control), or to a cell within the BSS, or to the whole BSS. The description of the layer 3 protocol for the BSSMAP information exchange is contained in Recommendation GSM 08.08.
Both connectionless and connection-oriented procedures are used to support the BSSMAP. Rec. GSM 08.08 explains whether connection oriented or connectionless services should be used for each layer 3 procedure. Connection oriented procedures are used to support the DTAP. A distribution function located in BSSAP, which is reflected in the protocol specification by the layer 3 header, performs the discrimination between the data related to those two subparts.
BSSAP messages include the following fields:
1 byte
1byte

Discrimination
DLCI
Length
BSSAP header structure
DiscriminationDistribution between the two sub-protocols: BSSMAP and DTAP.
DLCIOnly for DTAP. Used in MSC to BSS messages to indicate the type of origination data link connection over the radio interface.
LengthSubsequent Layer3 message parameter length.
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

BSSAPLE
http://webapp.etsi.org/key/queryform.asp. 3GPP TS 09.31 and 3GPP TS 04.71
BSSAP-LE is an extension to BSSAP that contains messages and parameters specific to the support of LCS. The BSSAP-LE is part of the LB interface. The following subsets of BSSAP-LE are defined: DTAP-LE and BSSMAP-LE. DTAP-LE messages are transfered between an SMLC and a Type A LMU. BSSMAP-LE messages are transferred between a BSC, MSC and SMLC.
The header appears as follows:
BSSMAP-LE Header
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
D=0
1
Length indicator = n
2
BSSMAP-LE Message Contents
3-n
DTAP-LE Header
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
D=0
1
DLCI
2
Length indicator = n
3
DTAP-LE Message Contents
4-n
Discrimination Indicator
BSSMAP-LE
0
DTAP-LE
1
DLCIThe DLCI in octet 2 is applicable only to DTAP-LE messages.For signaling to a type A LMU using an SDCCH and SAPI=0, the value of the DLCI is 10000000.
Length IndicatorThe length indicator is coded in one octet, and is the binary representation of the number of octets of the subsequent BSSMAP-LE or DTAP-LE message parameter. DTAP-LE MessagesThe following DTAP message types are available:
0X32
REGISTER
0X31
FACILITY
0X21
RELEASE COMPLETE
BSSMAP-LE MessagesThe following BSSMAP-LE message types are available:
0X2B
Perform Location Request
0X2D
Perform Location Response
0X2E
Perform Location Abort
0X1
LMU Connection Request
0X2
LMU Connection Accept
0X3
LMU Connection Reject
0X4
LMU Connection Release
0X2A
Connection Oriented Information
0X3A
Connectionless Information
0X30
Reset
0X31
Reset Acknowledge
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

BSSMAP
GSM 08.08 http://www.etsi.fr
The BSS Management Application Part (BSSMAP) supports all of the procedures between the MSC and the BSS that require interpretation and processing of information related to single calls, and resource management. Some of the BSSMAP procedures result in, or are triggered by, Radio Resource (RR) management messages defined in GSM 04.08.The format of the BSSMAP protocol is as follows:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Message type
1
Information Element
2-n
BSSMAP header structure

Message TypeA one octet field defining the message type. This mandatory field uniquely defines the function and format of each BSSMAP message.
Information ElementEach IE has an identifier which is coded as a single octet. The length of an IE may be fixed or variable and may or may not include a length indicator.
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

BTSM
GSM 08.58 http://www.etsi.fr
BTSM is the Base Station Controller to Base Transceiver Station (BSC - BTS) interface protocol (the A-bis interface). BTSM allows sending messages between the Base Station Controller and the Base Transceiver Station. Protocol messages consist of a series of information elements. For each message there are mandatory information elements and optional information elements. BTSM messages are transmitted on the A-bis interface using the I format of LAPD, except for the Measurement Result message which is sent in UI format.
The structure of BTSM messages is shown in the following diagram:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Message discriminator
1
Message type
2
Information elements
3-n
BTSM structure

Message discriminator1-octet field used in all messages to discriminate between Transparent and Non-Transparent messages and also between Radio Link Layer Management, Dedicated Channel Management, Common Channel Management and TRX Management messages.
Message typeUniquely identifies the function of the message being sent. It is a single octet field.
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

CC
GSM 04.08 http://www.etsi.fr
The call control (CC) protocol is one of the protocols of the Connection Management (CM) sublayer. Every mobile station must support the call control protocol. If a mobile station does not support any bearer capability at all then it must respond to a SETUP message with a RELEASE COMPLETE message. In the call control protocol, more than one CC entity are defined. Each CC entity is independent from each other and communicates with the correspondent peer entity using its own MM connection. Different CC entities use different transaction identifiers.
Certain sequences of actions of the two peer entities compose elementary procedures. These elementary procedures may be grouped into the following classes:
Call establishment procedures.
Call clearing procedures.
Call information phase procedures.
Miscellaneous procedures.
The terms "mobile originating" or "mobile originated" (MO) are used to describe a call initiated by the mobile station. The terms "mobile terminating" or "mobile terminated" (MT) are used to describe a call initiated by the network.
The CC structure is shown here:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Protocol Distriminator
Transaction ID
1
Message type
2
Information elements
3-n
CC structure

Protocol discriminator0011 identifies the CC protocol.
Transaction IdentifierThe format of the transaction identifier is as follows:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
TI flag
TI value
- - - -
1
Transaction Identifier

TI flagIdentifies who allocated the TI value for this transaction. The purpose of the TI flag is to resolve simultaneous attempts to allocate the same TI value.
TI valueTI values are assigned by the side of the interface initiating a transaction. At the beginning of a transaction, a free TI value is chosen and assigned to this transaction. It then remains fixed for the lifetime of the transaction. After a transaction ends, the associated TI value is free and may be reassigned to a later transaction. Two identical transaction identifier values may be used when each value pertains to a transaction originated at opposite ends of the interface.
Message typeCC message types may be as follows. Bit 8 is reserved for possible future use as an extension bit. Bit 7 is reserved for the send sequence number in messages sent from the mobile station.
0x000000

Escape to nationally specific message types
0x00- - - -

Call establishment messages:
0001

ALERTING
1000

CALL CONFIRMED
0010

CALL PROCEEDING
0111

CONNECT
1111

CONNECT ACKNOWLEDGE
1110

EMERGENCY SETUP
0011

PROGRESS
0101

SETUP
0x01- - - -

Call information phase messages:
0111

MODIFY
1111

MODIFY COMPLETE
0011

MODIFY REJECT
0000

USER INFORMATION
1000

HOLD
1001

HOLD ACKNOWLEDGE
1010

HOLD REJECT
1100

RETRIEVE
1101

RETRIEVE ACKNOWLEDGE
1110

RETRIEVE REJECT
0x10- - - -

Call clearing messages:
0101

DISCONNECT
1101

RELEASE
1010

RELEASE COMPLETE
0x11- - - -

Miscellaneous messages:
1001

CONGESTION CONTROL
1110

NOTIFY
1101

STATUS
0100

STATUS ENQUIRY
0101

START DTMF
0001

STOP DTMF
0010

STOP DTMF ACKNOWLEDGE
0110

START DTMF ACKNOWLEDGE
0111

START DTMF REJECT
1010

FACILITY
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

DTAP (CDMA)TIA/EIA/IS-634-A, revision AThe Direct Transfer Application Part (DTAP) messages are used to transfer call processing and mobility management messages to and from the MS. The BS does not use DTAP messages, but must map messages going to and coming from the MSC into the appropriate air interface signaling protocol. Transaction IDs are used to associate the DTAP messages with a particular MS and the current call.The format of the header is shown in the following illustration:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Transaction identifier
Protocol discriminator
1
Message type
2
Information elements
3-n
DTAP header structure

Protocol discriminatorThe protocol discriminator specifies the message being transferred (CC, MM, RR).Transaction identifierDistinguishes multiple parallel activities (transactions) within one mobile station. The format of the transaction identifier is as follows:
8
7
6
5
TI flag
TI value
Transaction identifier
TI flagIdentifies who allocated the TI value for this transaction. The purpose of the TI flag is to resolve simultaneous attempts to allocate the same TI value.TI valueTI values are assigned by the side of the interface initiating a transaction. At the beginning of a transaction, a free TI value is chosen and assigned to this transaction. It then remains fixed for the lifetime of the transaction. After a transaction ends, the associated TI value is free and may be reassigned to a later transaction. Two identical transaction identifier values may be used when each value pertains to a transaction originated at opposite ends of the interface.Message TypeThe message type defines the function of each DTAP message. Information elementsEach information element has a name which is coded as a single octet. The length of an information element may be fixed or variable and a length indicator for each one may be included.Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

DTAP (GSM)
GSM 04.08, 08.06, 08.08 http://www.etsi.fr
The Direct Transfer Application Part (DTAP) is used to transfer call control and mobility management messages between the MSC and the MS. The DTAP information in these messages is not interpreted by the BSS. Messages received from the MS are identified as DTAP by the Protocol Discriminator Information Element. The majority of radio interface messages are transferred across the BSS MSC interface by DTAP, except for messages belonging to the Radio Resource (RR) management protocol.
The DTAP function is in charge of transferring layer 3 messages from the MS (or from the MSC) to the MSC (or to the MS) without any analysis of the message contents. The interworking between the layer 2 protocol on the radio side and signalling system 7 at the landside is based on the use of individual SCCP connections for each MS and on the distribution function.
The format of the DTAP header is shown in the following illustration:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Protocol Distriminator
Transaction / Skip
1
0
N(SD)
Message Type
2
Information Elements
3-n
GSM L3 structure

Protocol discriminatorIdentifies the L3 protocol to which the standard layer 3 message belongs. Values may be as follows:0000 Group call control0001 Broadcast call control0010 PDSS10011 Call control; call related SS messages0100 PDSS20101 Mobility Management Messages0110 Radio resources management messages1001 SMS messages1011 Non-call related SS messages1110 Extension of the PD to one octet length1111 Tests procedures described in TS GSM 11.10
Transaction ID / Skip identifierEither a transaction identifier, or a skip indictor depending on the level 3 protocol. The transaction identifier contains the transaction value and flag which identifies who allocated the TI.
N(SD)For MM and CM, N(SD) is set to the value of the send state variable. In other level 3 messages, bit 7 is set to 0 by the sending side. Messages received with bit 7 set to 1 are ignored.
Message typeUniquely defines the function and format of each GSM L3 message. The message type is mandatory for all messages. The meaning of the message type is therefore dependent on the protocol (the same value may have different meanings in different protocols) and direction (the same value may have different meanings in the same protocol, when sent from the Mobile Station to the network and when sent from the network to the Mobile Station).
Information elementsThe message type may be followed by various information elements depending on the protocol.
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

MM
GSM 04.08 http://www.etsi.fr
The main function of the Mobility Management (MM) sub-layer is to support the mobility of user terminals, such as informing the network of its present location and providing user identity confidentiality. A further function of the MM sub-layer is to provide connection management services to the different entities of the upper Connection Management (CM) sub-layer
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Protocol distriminator
Skip indicator
1
Message type
2
Information elements
3-n
MM header structure

Protocol discriminator0101 identifies the MM protocol.
Message typeMM message types may be as follows. Bit 8 is reserved for possible future use as an extension bit. Bit 7 is reserved for the send sequence number in messages sent from the mobile station.
0x00- - - -

Registration messages:
0001

IMSI DETACH INDICATION
0010

LOCATION UPDATING ACCEPT
0100

LOCATION UPDATING REJECT
1000

LOCATION UPDATING REQUEST
0x01- - - -

Security messages:
0001

AUTHENTICATION REJECT
0010

AUTHENTICATION REQUEST
0100

AUTHENTICATION RESPONSE
1000

IDENTITY REQUEST
1001

IDENTITY RESPONSE
1010

TMSI REALLOCATION COMMAND
1011

TMSI REALLOCATION COMPLETE
0x10- - - -

Connection management messages:
0001

CM SERVICE ACCEPT
0010

CM SERVICE REJECT
0011

CM SERVICE ABORT
0100

CM SERVICE REQUEST
1000

CM REESTABLISHMENT REQUEST
1001

ABORT
0x11- - - -

Miscellaneous messages:
0001

MM STATUS
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

MMS
http://www.openmobilealliance.org/ OMA-MMS-ENC-v1_1-20021030-C.
The WAP Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS) uses WAP WSP/HTTP as underlying protocols to transfer MMS PDUs between the MMS Client, which resides on the terminal (MS) and the MMS Proxy -Relay.
This structure is based on the well-known message structure of Internet email binary encoding of MMS PDUs. Because of the limited bandwidth of the air interface of mobile networks MMS PDUs are transferred between an MMS Client and an MMS Proxy -Relay in binary encoded message format. This process is called encapsulation. WSP PDUs or HTTP messages, which contain MMS PDUs as their body, are used for this transport.
MMS PDUs, which are described in this specification, are included in WSP PDUs/HTTP messages of different types. The entire MMS information is contained in MMS PDUs, which are encapsulated in WSP PDUs/HTTP messages.
The content type of WSP PDUs/HTTP messages containing MMS PDUs is"application/vnd.wap.mms - message."
MMS has no header structure as it consists of messages. Field Reference Number:
0x81
Bcc
0x82
Cc
0x83
X-Mms-Content-Location
0x84
Content-Type
0x85
Date
0x86
X-Mms-Delivery-Report
0x87
X-Mms-Delivery-Time
0x88
X-Mms-Expiry
0x89
From
0x8A
X-mms-Message-Class
0x8B
Message-ID
0x8C
X-Mms-Message-Type
0x8D
X-Mms-MMS-Version
0x8E
X-Mms-Message-Size
0x8F
X-Mms-Priority
0x90
X-Mms-Read-Report
0x91
X-Mms-Report-Allowed
0x92
X-Mms-Response-Status
0x93
X-Mms-Response-Text
0x94
X-Mms-Sender-Visibility
0x95
X-Mms-Status
0x96
Subject
0x97
To
0x98
X-Mms-Transaction-Id
0x99
X-Mms-Retrieve-Status
0x9A
X-Mms-Retrieve-Text
0x9B
X-Mms-Read-Status
0x9C
X-Mms-Reply-Charging
0x9D
X-Mms-Reply-Charging-Deadline
0x9E
X-Mms-Reply-Charging-ID
0x9F
X-Mms-Reply-Charging-Size
0xA0
X-Mms-Previously-Sent-By
0xA1
X-Mms-Previously-Sent-DateMessage TypeThe following message types are contained in the PDU:
128
m-send-req
129
m-send-conf
130
m-notification-ind
131
m-notifyresp-ind
132
m-retrieve-conf
133
m-acknowledge-ind
134
m-delivery-ind
135
m-read-rec-ind
136
m-read-orig-ind
137
m-forward-req
138
m-forward-conf
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

RR
GSM 04.08 http://www.etsi.fr
RR (Radio Resource) management procedures include the functions related to the management of the common transmission resources, e.g., the physical channels and the data link connections on control channels. The general purpose of Radio Resource procedures is to establish, maintain and release RR connections that allow a point-to-point dialogue between the network and a Mobile Station. This includes the cell selection/reselection and the handover procedures. Moreover, Radio Resource management procedures include the reception of the uni-directional BCCH and CCCH when no RR connection is established. This permits automatic cell selection/reselection.
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Protocol distriminator
Skip indicator
1
Message type
2
Information elements
3-n
RR structure

Protocol discriminator0110 identifies the RR Management protocol.
Skip identifierValue of 0000.
Message typeUniquely defines the function and format of each RR message. The message type is mandatory for all messages. RR message types may be:
00111- - -

Channel establishment messages:
011

ADDITIONAL ASSIGNMENT
111

IMMEDIATE ASSIGNMENT
001

IMMEDIATE ASSIGNMENT EXTENDED
010

IMMEDIATE ASSIGNMENT REJECT
00110- - -

Ciphering messages:
101

CIPHERING MODE COMMAND
010

CIPHERING MODE COMPLETE
00101- - -

Handover messages:
110

ASSIGNMENT COMMAND
001

ASSIGNMENT COMPLETE
111

ASSIGNMENT FAILURE
011

HANDOVER COMMAND
100

HANDOVER COMPLETE
000

HANDOVER FAILURE
101

PHYSICAL INFORMATION
00001- - -

Channel release messages:
101

CHANNEL RELEASE
010

PARTIAL RELEASE
111

PARTIAL RELEASE COMPLETE
00100- - -

Paging messages:
001

PAGING REQUEST TYPE 1
010

PAGING REQUEST TYPE 2
100

PAGING REQUEST TYPE 3
111

PAGING RESPONSE
00011- - -

System information messages:
000

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 8
001

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 1
010

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 2
011

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 3
100

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 4
101

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 5
110

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 6
111

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 7
00000- - -

System information messages:
010

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 2bis
011

SYSTEM IN FORMATION TYPE 2ter
101

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 5bis
110

SYSTEM INFORMATION TYPE 5ter
00010- - -

Miscellaneous messages:
000

CHANNEL MODE MODIFY
010

RR STATUS
111

CHANNEL MODE MODIFY ACKNOWLEDGE
100

FREQUENCY REDEFINITION
101

MEASUREMENT REPORT
110

CLASSMARK CHANGE
011

CLASSMARK ENQUIRY
Interested in more details about testing this protocol?

SMS
GSM 04.11 http://www.etsi.fr
The purpose of the Short Message Service (SMS)is to provide the means to transfer messages between a GSM PLMN Mobile Station and a Short Message Entity via a Service Center, as described in TS GSM 03.40. The terms "MO" - Mobile Originating - and "MT" - Mobile Terminating - are used to indicate the direction in which the short message is sent.
The SMS structure is as follows for control messages:
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
Octet
Protocol distriminator
Skip indicator
1
Message type
2
Information elements
3-n
SMS CP structure

Protocol discriminator1001 identifies the SMS protocol.
Transaction IdentifierSee CC for the format of the Transaction ID.
Message typeThe message type, together with the protocol discriminator, identifies the function of the message being sent. Messages may be of the following:00000001 CP-DATA00000100 CP-ACK00010000 CP-ERROR
Information ElementEach IE has an identifier which is coded as a single octet. The length of an IE may be fixed or variable and may or may not include a length indicator.
The SMS struc
source;http://www.protocols.com

ISP (Internet Service Provider) List of Pakistan

Apolo Online
Islamabad
2651361-3
http://www.apollo.net.pk/
Asia Net
Lahore
111-111-202
http://www.asia.net.pk/
Beaconet
Lahore
111-200-002
http://www.beacon.net/
Brain Net
Karachi, Lahore
111-222-888
http://www.brain.net.pk/
Click Online
Peshawar
111-131-111
http://www.click.net.pk/
Comsats
Islamabad, Karachi
111-700-800
http://www.comsats.net.pk/
CubeXS
Karachi
5866991-2
http://www.cubexs.net.pk/
Cyber Access
Karachi
4553923
http://www.cyberaccess.com.pk/
Cyber Net
Karachi
111-44-55-66
http://www.cyber.net.pk/
Dancom Online
Karachi
111-505-555
http://www.dancom.com.pk/
Eworld
Karachi
111-246-246
http://www.eworld.net.pk/
Excel Net
Islamabad
111-000-707
http://www.excel-xl.net/
Expert Net
Okara
526929
http://www.xpert.net.pk/
Fascom
Karachi
2400455
http://www.fascom.com/
Fibre
Lahore
6660066
http://www.fibre.net.pk/
G. Net
Gujranwala
111-222-465
http://www.gol.com.pk/
Gem Net
Karachi
111-436-638
http://www.gem.net.pk/
Gerrys Net
Karachi
111-123-321
http://www.gerrys.net/
Go Net
Karachi
111-778-866
http://www.go.net.pk/
Hamdard Net
Karachi
111-436-000
http://www.hamdard.net.pk/
Iqra Net
Peshawar
111-364-364
http://www.iqranet.net/
Micro Net
Islamabad
111-114-444
http://www.micro.net.pk/
MS Net
Lahore
111-111-676
http://www.ms.net.pk/
Multi Net
Karachi
111-021-021
http://www.multi.net.pk/
Net Door
Karachi
6350552
http://www.netdoor.net.pk/
Netsol
Karachi
111-638-765
http://www.netsolir.com/
Nexlinx
Lahore
111-432-432
http://www.nexlinx.net.pk/
Orbit Net
Islamabad
829415
http://www.orbit.net.pk/
Pakistan Online
Lahore
111-111-567
http://www.pol.com.pk/
Pak Net
Karachi, Lahore
111-222-117
http://www.paknet.com.pk/
Sat Net
Karachi
111-728-638
http://www.sat.net.pk/
Shoa Net
Islamabad
2828334
http://www.shoa.net/
Speedia Online
Islamabad
5471515
http://www.speedia.net.pk/
Super Net
Karachi
111-787-376
http://www.super.net.pk/
Top Net
Islamabad
2870071-3
http://www.topnet.com.pk/
World Call
Karachi, Lahore
111-111-925
http://www.go4b.net/
World Online
Karachi
111-600-111
http://www.wol.com.pk/
Zab Net
Karachi
111-922-638
http://www.zab.net.pk/
source; http://www.paktimes.com

ISP,s LIST OF PAKISTAN

Ak Net
http://www.ak.net.pk
Apollo Online
http://www.apollo.net.pk
Asia Online
http://www.aol.net.pk
Aster Net
http://www.aster.com.pk
Best Net
http://www.best.net.pk
Brain Net
http://www.brain.net.pk
Breeze Net
http://www.breeze.net.pk
CompuNet Online
http://www.compol.com
COMSATS
http://www.comsats.net.pk
CubeXS
http://www.cubexs.net.pk
CyberAccess
http://www.cyberaccess.com.pk
CyberNet
http://www.cyber.net.pk
Digicom
http://www.digicom.net.pk
Fascom
http://www.fascom.com
Gerry's Net
http://www.gerrys.net
GlobalNet
http://www.global.net.pk
IBM
http://www.ibm.net
ICNS
http://www.icns.com.pk
Info Net
http://www.inet.com.pk
Infolink
http://www.infolink.net.pk
MegaNet
http://www.mega.net.pk
MS Net
http://www.ms.net.pk
Net 21
http://www.net21pk.com
NetAccess
http://www.netxs.com.pk
NetAsia
http://www.netasia.com.pk
Nexlinx
http://www.nexlinx.net.pk
Nigsun Online
http://www.compcare.com.pk
Pak Net
http://www.paknet.ptc.pk
Pakistan Online
http://www.pol.com.pk
Pienet Global
http://www.pienet.net
RoboNet Int'L
http://www.robonets.com
SAT COM
http://www.sat.com.pk
SHOA
http://www.shoa.net
Sky Net
http://www.netcard.net.pk
Space Net
http://www.space.net.pk
SPARCOM
http://www.sparcom.net.pk
Super Net
http://www.super.net.pk
The Flash Net
http://www.theflash.net
Top Net
http://www.top.net.pk
World Online
http://www.wol.net.pk
WorldTel Internet
http://www.wtmeca.net
Zoooom Net
http://www.zoooom.net

source; http://www.cybercity-online.net